Autonomous Vehicle Parking Using Finite State Automata Information Technology Essay

Autonomous Vehicle Parking Using Finite State Automata Information Technology Essay Our project is based on the autonomous parking using finite state automata. The invention of the autonomous parking system in which the elevator, lifter and computer are connected in group such that each unit swap information as it require and then the system calculating processes of loading and unloading a car, issuing the parking ticket and then identifying the parking ticket. The parking system include a elevator , lifter, computer, database for storing vehicle number data and information data which only display that how many car are parking in different floors and then elevator load car , park in vacant floor and unloaded the car one by one and. The process of elevator is to pick and lift the car from ground to parking area and then back to it owns position. The present invention narrates to a system of controlling a autonomous parking system and calculating a parking fee and more principally to a parking control system to which a computer, a control unit, a parking ticket issuer, and a parking ticket recognizer are connected through a network for allowing any required information to be used among them. Description of the Prior Art Generally in a conventional autonomous parking system, a car is moved to a respective floor along hoist way with use of a lift, and then parked in respective parking space with use of pallets. In that system, a fee calculator and a parking ticket issuer are separately operated such that each operation of a parking machine, a parking ticket issuer, and the fee calculator is performed separately. History The parking of vehicles in the employment center of larger cities of the world has increasingly become a major problem. Not only is there insufficient available land for surface parking but the high cost of the land makes such a use economically infeasible. In addition, the aggregation of a large amount of vehicles causes traffic, environmental, aesthetic, and pollution problems. The solution to locate parking facilities in more remote areas where land cost are lower is also not feasible because of inconvenient distances to areas of employment and potential safety and security problem To construct large underground parking facility in these congested center city areas also create major problem because of the high cost of the instruction the multitude of underground utility encountered and the inevitable distribution to existing services during the construction period This complex situation indicates that the use of small low volume underground parking facility with the capability of the fitting within the existing infra structure would be highly desirable. Not only would be they be able to be located conveniently to the drivers destination but they also have potential to maintain the surface above the parking facility in a park Other generators that demand more convenient, close or adjacent parking solution include office buildings, apartments, hotels and institutions where surface parking would not meet the requirements by reason of restricted land area, high land costs, inconvenient access, security, and environmental factors. In response to these needs for alternative and convenient parking, the engineering group endeavored to engineer a solution. They had previously solved couples design challenges in the construction industry by utilizing an approach that included standardization and variety reduction in order to reduce construction costs and time and to provide greater consumer benefit. Their solution was autonomous parking system, a modular automated parking system that could be installed below or above ground, alone or in repeat modules. This approach provided the advantages of minimizing inconvenience, expediting construction time, and lowering construction cost. Its compact area permitted it to be built in center city areas, while avoiding the problems of interference with dense underground utilities and major disruptions to these services. INTRODUCTION Autonomous parking is an autonomous car planning from a line of traffic into a parking place to perform parallel parking. The autonomous parking intends to develop the ease and safety of driving in controlled situations where much attention and knowledge is required to steer the vehicle. The parking scheme is achieved by means of synchronized control of the steering angle and speed which takes into account the actual circumstance in the environment to make sure collision-free motion within the available space. OR The automated vehicle parking system for a parking facility that be in handle with a vehicle approaching or leaving the facility with RF signals, or the like, that identify the vehicle and sends the vehicle identification number, time of day, and lane number to a central computer for calculating the parking cost based on rates for each individual vehicle stored in the computer. [7] EVOLUTIONARY FUNCTIONAL TEST OF THE AUTONOMOUS PARKING SYSTEM THE AUTONOMOUS PARKING SYSTEM As an automobile manufacturer, DaimlerChrysler is continuously developing new systems in order to improve vehicle safety, quality, and comfort. Within this context, prototypical vehicle systems are developed, which support autonomous vehicle parking a function that might be introduced to the market in some years time. The autonomous parking systems regarded in this paper are intended to automate parking lengthways into a parking space, like shown in Fig.1. For this purpose, the vehicle is equipped with environmental sensors, which register objects surrounding the vehicle. On passing along, the system can recognize sufficiently large parking spaces and can signal to the driver that a parking space has been found. If the driver decides to park in the vehicle can do this automatically. Fig 1: Functionality of Autonomous Parking System [1] In Fig.2 the system environment for the autonomous parking system is shown. The inputs are sensor data, which contain information on the state of the vehicle, e.g. vehicle speed or steering position, and information from the environmental sensors, which register objects on the left and right hand side of the vehicle. For output the system possesses an interface to the vehicle actors, where the vehicles velocity and steering angle will be set. The internal structure of the autonomous parking Fig 2: System Environment- [2] The parking space detection processes the data from the environmental sensor systems and delivers the recognized geometry of a parking space if it has been detected to be sufficiently large. The parking controller component uses the geometry data of the parking space together with the data from the vehicle sensors to steer the vehicle through the parking procedure. For this purpose, velocity and steering angle are set for the vehicle actors. Fig 3: Subcomponents of Autonomous Parking System [3] Some proposals for solving of parking problems A good decision is to be built automated parking systems for cars preferably served by stacker cranes (see fig 4), that are the basic element of the automated warehouse structures. Fig 4: [4] Brief Description about FINITE STATE AUTOMATA Finite-State Automata A finite-state transducer whose output components are ignored is called a finite-state automaton. Formally, a  finite-state  automaton  M is a tuple , where Q,  , q0, and F are defined as for finite-state transducers, and the transition table  Ã‚  is a relation from Q ÃÆ'- (  Ã‚  {}) to Q. Kinds of Finite State Automata 1. DFA 2. NFA What is NFA? In the theory of computation, nondeterministic finite automaton (NFA)  is a  finite state machine  where for each pair of state and input symbol there may be several possible next states. This distinguishes it from the  deterministic finite automaton  (DFA), where the next possible state is uniquely determined. Although the DFA and NFA have distinct definitions, it may be shown in the formal theory that they are equivalent, in that, for any given NFA, one may construct an equivalent DFA, and vice-versa: this is the  power set construction. Both types of automata recognize only  regular languages. Non-deterministic finite state machines are sometimes studied by the name  sub shifts of finite type. Non-deterministic finite state machines are generalized by  probabilistic automata, which assign a probability to each state transition. Formal Definition Two similar types of NFAs are commonly defined: the NFA and the  NFA with ÃŽÂ µ-moves. The ordinary NFA is defined as a  5-tuple, (Q, ÃŽÂ £,  T,  q0, F), consisting of a finite  set  of states  Q a finite set of  input symbols  ÃƒÅ½Ã‚ £ a transition  function  T  :  Q  ÃƒÆ'- ÃŽÂ £ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã‚  P(Q). an  initial  (or  start) state  q0  Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‹â€ Ã‚  Q a set of states  F  distinguished as  accepting  (or  final)  states  F  Ãƒ ¢Ã…  Ã¢â‚¬  Ã‚  Q. What is DFA? In the  theory of computation, a  deterministic finite state machine-also known as  deterministic finite state automaton  (DFSA) is a  finite state machine  where for each pair of state and input symbol there is one and only one transition to a next state, as opposed to a  nondeterministic finite-state machine, which has the possibility of multiple transitions . DFAs recognize the set of  regular languages  and no other languages. A DFA will take in a string of input symbols. For each input symbol it will then transition to a state given by following a transition function. When the last input symbol has been received it will either accept or reject the string depending on whether the DFA is in an accepting state or a non-accepting state. Formal Definition A DFA is a 5-tuple, (Q, ÃŽÂ £, ÃŽÂ ´,  q0,  F), consisting of a finite set of  states  (Q) a finite set of input symbols called the  alphabet  (ÃŽÂ £) a transition  function  (ÃŽÂ ´Ã‚  :  Q  ÃƒÆ'- ÃŽÂ £ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Ã‚  Q) a  start state  (q0  Ãƒ ¢Ã‹â€ Ã‹â€ Ã‚  Q) a set of  accept states  (F  Ãƒ ¢Ã…  Ã¢â‚¬  Ã‚  Q) Finite State Machine of Autonomous Vehicle parking Language (L) = {pick car, first floor, second floor, third floor, go to, back, ground, elevator} Third Floor Second Floor First Floor Elevator Ground stand Back into position goto Pick Car back goto goto goto Back back goto goto Fig 5 Finite State Machine of Autonomous Vehicle parking NFA to DFA Finite State Machine of Autonomous Vehicle parking Let assigned digit code to each statement in above machine. e d c b a 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 Tabular Form S x I 0 1 a A B b A cde c A D d C E e D error cde Acd de acd Ac bde de Cd E ac A bd bde Acd cde cd Ac de bd Ac cde b a cde cd de ac bde DFA Machine 0 0 1 0 1 0 acd 1 1 1 0 0 0 bd 1 0 1 1 0 0 Q={a,b,c,d,e} q0={a} qf={a,c,d,e} Language= {0,1} S=Q X I S= (a, 0) = a S= (a, 1) = b S= (b, 0) = a S= (b, 1) = cde S=(c, 0) = a S=(c, 1) = d S= (d, 0) = c S= (d, 1) = e S= (e, 0) = d S= (e, 1) =error Autonomous Parking Solutions Autonomous parking solutions are capable to way store huge number of vehicles within sufficient space. How Autonomous Parking System works The procedure of autonomous parking solution begins as soon as elevator come to pick the car, the door I s then closed and after that stored into vacant parking space and automatically return to entry box when we press the button. Maximizing the use of space for parking Besides the ease of parking for the user, maximum parking capacity is guaranteed because there are no slopes of carriageways with the autonomous parker. Reasons why Autonomous Parking System is the ideal solution There are several reason why autonomous park is the ideal solution because whenever and wherever the huge number of vehicle park need to be park over the available space, e.g. optimum access times, comfortable operation, protection against theft, robbery, burglary and harm, low maintenance requirements, and last but not least, high adaptability to the individual garage planning project with respect to the options regarding maximum possible car heights. [6] Automated Parking General Descriptions Below is a list of terms and definitions to better assist you in understanding the nomenclature in the FATA Sky parks automated parking systems. Entry section The point where the driver parks their vehicle. Exit section The point where the driver retrieves their vehicle and where the APS will transport the vehicle when the request is made. Joint Entry and Exit The vehicle is dropped off and picked up at the same section. This option requires extra space allow for a turntable to turn the vehicle around. Turntable Speeds up the retrieval time by simplifying the exit system in combination sections. The vehicle is turned 180 degrees and is ready to be driven forward out of the Combined Entry/Exit module, rather than being backed out. Robot Shuttle The mechanical part of the system that picks up the parked vehicle in the entry/exit or combo section and moves the vehicles horizontally along the primary walkway to a vertical lift or available parking space. Multiple robots can be used. Dedicated Robots Robot shuttles that are dedicated to each parking floor. benefit once the vehicle is put down on a vertical lift the robot can retrieve another call on that level. The dedicated choice is generally a faster system. Roaming Robots Robot shuttles that travel through the system with the vehicles on them by riding up on a end-of-aisle lift. Benefit less robots are used, but release times are compact. Autonomous The robots move separately from each other. Advantage if a robot requires service the efficiency of the system is only modestly affected. Off-Corridor Vertical Lift The portion of the system that moves the vehicles vertically from the entry level to an above/below ground-parking floor. Used in conjunction with dedicated robot shuttles and only transfers the vehicle to alternate floors. Typically used on systems that have a robot aisle greater than 75-100 in length to increase delivery speeds. End-of-aisle Vertical Lift The section of the system that moves the vehicles vertically from the entry level to an above/below ground-parking floor. Used in combination with Roaming robot transports and lifts the robot carry and vehicle to alternate floors. Typically used for systems with a robot aisle less than 100 in length. Layout The organization of the parking structure including the demonstration of parked vehicles off of the robot aisle. Conventional parking pass on to the typical concrete parking structures with vehicle slope access to multiple floors. Non-Automated Queuing Time Queuing time refers to the time necessary the system is busy before another vehicle is allowed to enter the system. Queuing time is dependent relative on the entry and exit time of the driver (length of time to depart or enter the parked car) and the amount of automated lifts, robots, and entry / exit modules utilized. Attendant Requirements No attendant is required, however, an attendant is useful in assisting drivers to negotiate the system. If the parking lot is open to the public and not strictly the building tenants, an attendant is recommended. Benefit of parking Guidance System/Autonomous Parking System The obvious benefit of automated parking systems  is the ability to fit more cars in less space which can solve many parking problems, but there are many other benefits to the developer, operator,  consumer and society in general.   For example, consider the countless acres  of open space consumed by  parking lots  and all the storm water runoff generated by that entire impervious surface.   Self park ramp garages  are more efficient, but still take twice the space as an automated parking facility.     By contrast, automated parking garages are a green solution since they  preserve open space,  have low energy consumption and have no carbon emissions, because vehicles are shut off before being parked in the system. General benefits Decrease in time spent for searching parking. The efficiency and accessibility benefits from reduced searching can also cause good result in some lessening in accidents due to reduced driver frustration Reduced pollution. Changes in pollutant emissions due to Parking Guidance information are most closely related to changes in overall travel time, for example, yearly pollutant release are reported to have been reduced due to a PGI system in Munich, Germany. Reduction in traffic jams due to fewer cars driving around for spaces searching.   Elimination of stand in line entering parking facilities because drivers will not go to a facility where there is no available space.   Reduction in unlawfully parked vehicles.   Better distribution of flow and parking demand through the area. Autonomous parking systems result in higher revenues and profitability for the parking facilities.   Operator Benefits    Reduced labor    Reduced liability    Reduced lighting HVAC      Total control over access enforcement Consumer Social Benefits    Eliminate fender benders    Eliminate theft and vandalism    Reduce carbon emissions    Preserve open space Highlights of autonomous parking The main highlights of the automated parking systems served by stacker crane in comparison with other systems are: optimum use of the available space, minimum room of a parking automobile, no need of platforms and staircases, module principle of building, that meets the requirements of the clients, shortening the time needed for building a parking system, Less time for parking and forwarding because of the high traveling speed of the stacker crane and simultaneously vertical and horizontal movement and so on. Examples of Autonomous Parking System Features of Hoboken, New Jersey Benefits of the autonomous parking system include: optimization of space utilization, security, convenience, lower garage owners liability insurance, greater reduction schedule, lower lighting and ventilation requirements (no cars driving around inside; no people go inside), and lower emissions and less pollution (clean parking system). Car Towers at the Autostadt: A Hive for Beetles Fig [5] Features The Car Towers is a 20-story tall car storage space tower in Wolfsburg, Germany. Its owned operated by Volkswagen, which enlighten why all the cars around 800 at full capacity are VWs. The Car Towers has often been used to demonstrate public parking garages of the future even though its a private endeavor that merely allows VW to save space. Dubai Robotic Car park Fig - [8] Features The robotic car park in Deira, Dubai (above) doesnt have the enough storage space of the Car Towers (14 cars instead of 800) but it is practical, workable and open for business. A 67-car capacity robot car park in New Yorks Chinatown works on the same principal. CONCLUSIONS The future belongs to the automated parking garages and the efforts made in this direction account for the investments. Automated parking garages are better decision from the social point of view. For example the owners of cars who park their cars in parking automat are forced to pay higher parking charges. This is extremely important in order to shorten the time for servicing a single cell for parking, which is a basic criteria in building automated parking systems for cars. Summary The primary purpose of this autonomous parking study was to determine short-term and long-term recommendations to improve parking in cities. The parking study initially evaluated existing conditions, determined primarily through reviews of background materials (including previous parking studies), . The examination of existing conditions provided the baseline data from which future development, with its impact on parking supply and demand, could be evaluated. Finally, parking alternatives were considered to address future needs, as well as improve the utilization and efficiency of existing parking resources. Future parking alternatives included potential parking supply changes, as well as general parking management strategies.

It’s Time to Regulate the Use of Cell Phones on the Road :: Argumentative Persuasive Argument Essays

It’s Time to Regulate the Use of Cell Phones on the Road When a cell phone goes off in a classroom or at a concert, we are irritated, but at least our lives are not endangered. When we are on the road, however, irresponsible cell phone users are more than irritating: They are putting our lives at risk. Many of us have witnessed drivers so distracted by dialing and chatting that they resemble drunk drivers, weaving between lanes, for example, or nearly running down pedestrians in crosswalks. A number of bills to regulate use of cell phones on the road have been introduced in state legislatures, and the time has come to push for their passage. Regulation is needed because drivers using phones are seriously impaired and because laws on negligent and reckless driving are not sufficient to punish offenders. No one can deny that cell phones have caused traffic deaths and injuries. Cell phones were implicated in three fatal accidents in November 2003 alone. Early in November, two-year-old Morgan Pena was killed by a driver distracted by his cell phone. Morgan’s mother, Patti Pena, reports that the driver â€Å"ran a stop sign at 45 mph, broadsided my vehicle and killed Morgan as she sat in her car seat.† A week later, corrections officer Shannon Smith, who was guarding prisoners by the side of the road, was killed by a woman distracted by a phone call (Besthoff). On Thanksgiving weekend that same month, John and Carole Hall were killed when a Naval Academy midshipman crashed into their parked car. The driver said in court that when he looked up from the cell phone he was dialing, he was three feet from the car and had no time to stop (Stockwell B8). Expert testimony, public opinion, and even cartoons suggest that driving while phoning is dangerous. Frances Bents, an expert on the relation between cell phones and accidents, estimates that between 450 and 1,000 crashes a year have some connection to cell phone use (Layton C9). In a survey published by Farmers Insurance Group, 87% of those polled said that cell phones affect a driver’s ability, and 40% reported having close calls with drivers distracted by phones. Scientific research confirms the dangers of using phones while on the road. In 2003 an important study appeared in the New England Journal of Medicine. The authors, Donald Redelmeier and Robert Tibshirani, studied 699 volunteers who made their cell phone bills available in order to confirm the times when they had placed calls.

History of modern psychology Essay

Psychology’s history cannot be understood adequately without knowing something of philosophy’s history. All of the important issues that concern modern psychologists have been addressed by philosophers (2008). I will discuss how the philosophers: Descartes, Locke, Hume, Mill, and Berkley. These individuals life work greatly influenced the development of modern psychology. The End of the Renaissance and the 17th century brought to history, the man who is â€Å"sometimes considered the father of modern philosophy, mathematics, physiology and psychology†, the great philosopher, Rene’ Descartes (Goodwin, 2008). Descartes was born in La Haye on March 31, 1596 of Joachim Descartes and Jeanne Brochard. He was one of a number of surviving children (two siblings and two half-siblings). His father was a lawyer and magistrate, which apparently left little time for family. Descartes’ mother died in May of the year following his birth, and he, his full brother and sister, Pierre and Jeanne, were left to be raised by their grandmother in La Haye. At around ten years of age, in 1606, he was sent to the Jesuit college of La Fleche. He studied there until 1614, and in 1615 entered the University of Poitiers, where a year later he received his Baccalaureate and License in Canon & Civil Law (2012). Goodwin (2008) summarized that, Descartes was a rationalist, believing that the way to true knowledge was through the systematic use of his reasoning abilities. Because he believed that some truths Were universal and could be arrived at through reason and without the necessity of sensory experience, he was also a nativist. In addition, he was a dualist and an interactionist, believing that mind and body were distinct essences, but that they had direct influence on each other. It is Descartes’ who is most likely responsible for many of the themes that came from the late Renaissance that are incorporated into the science of psychology today, but since that time there are many philosophers in the Western tradition that contributed to the formation of psychology as a discipline. Western Philosophers that Contributed to the Formation of Psychology as a Discipline John Locke (b. 1632, d. 1704) was a British philosopher, Oxford academic and medical researcher. Locke is often classified as the first of the great English empiricists. Locke, according to Goodwin (2008) â€Å"is important to psychology as a consequence of the concepts expressed in two of his books, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690/1963) and Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693/1963) (p. 38). Goodwin (2008) explains further that the â€Å"former explains Locke’s views on how knowledge is acquired, how we as humans come to understand our world† (p. 38) and the â€Å"latter is based on a series of letters to a friend and shows how empiricist thinking could be applied to all aspects of a child’s education† (p. 38). David Hume was born near Edinburgh, Scotland. David Hume, was an empiricist/associationist that Goodwin (2008) summarizes was â€Å"known for making a distinction between impressions, which result from sensation, and ideas, which he said were faint copies of impressions† (p. 59). It is also said that he â€Å"identified the rules of association as resemblance, contiguity, and cause/effect† and â€Å"he believed that we cannot know causality absolutely, only that certain events occur together regularly† (Goodwin, 2008, p. 59). George Berkeley was born in or near Kilkenny, Ireland on 12 March 1685. He was raised in Dysart Castle (Flage, 2005). He was a bishop of the Anglican Church in Ireland and was one thinker that was especially concerned about the materialistic implications of seventeenth-century science (Goodwin, 2008, p. 43). Berkeley was one of the three most famous British Empiricists. (The other two are John Locke and David Hume. ). George Berkeley wrote a detailed analysis of visual perception based on empiricist arguments, in the process describing visual phenomena such as convergence, accommodation, and the effects of the inverted retinal image. He rejected Locke’s primary/secondary qualities distinction, and to counter materialism, he proposed (subjective idealism) that we cannot be sure of the reality of objects except through our belief in God, the Permanent Perceiver (Goodwin, 2008). Nineteenth-Century Development of the Science of Psychology John Stuart Mill was a child prodigy and one the leading British philosopher of the nineteenth century (Goodwin, 2008). Mill’s politics derived from and contributed to his psychology. As an empiricist, he believed that all knowledge came through experience and that under the proper circumstances, anyone could become knowledgeable. Thus, he favored government support for universal education and was appalled at the traditional English system that favored the landed gentry, an elite minority (Goodwin, 2008). According to Goodwin (2008), He brought British associationism to its zenith and he provided an analysis of scientific thinking that guides psychological research to this day. He was a key transition figure in the shift from the philosophy of the mind to the science of the mind. Immanuel Kant agreed with the empiricists that our knowledge is built from experience, and he argued that the more important question was how the process occurs. Kant derived the fundamental principles of human thought and action from human sensibility, understanding, and reason, all as sources of our autonomy; he balanced the contributions of these principles against the ineliminable inputs of external sensation and internal inclination beyond our own control; and he strove both to demarcate these principles from each other and yet to integrate them into a single system with human autonomy as both its foundation and its ultimate value and goal (Guyer, 2004). Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) is known as the founder of experimental psychology. He founded the first â€Å"school† of psychology, called structuralism. The main goal of Wundt’s school was to analyze the contents of the mind into its basic structural components or elements, using introspection of mental contents as the chief method (Goodwin, 2008). According to Goodwin (2008), Wundt is justifiably considered the first true psychologist of the modern era and although it is difficult to identify a single Wundtian among the early American psychologists, he had a strong influence on the origins of American psychology. Psychology, as a science is rooted in its origin of philosophy. Descartes, Hume, Mill, Berkeley, Locke, Kant, and Wundt were some of the brightest of their time. The development of modern psychology and its many branches would not be possible without the hard work and contributions of these individuals.

Air Pollution in Australia essays

Air Pollution in Australia essays 1. Identify current trends, scale and likely future sources of carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, lead, particles and photochemical oxidants..... AGA notes that considerable background material is already available on this issue including the State of the Environment Report and other processes being developed through the NEPC. It is important that reporting by the Inquiry take account of existing material. 2. Identify and evaluate management options for each of the identified pollutants, including options which address one or more pollutants together, which will lead to improved urban air quality in the medium (5-10 years) and longer (10-15 years) term. It is widely recognized that use of gaseous transport fuels  ¾ liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) and natural gas for vehicles (NGVs)  ¾ can assist in improving urban air quality. In response to the Federal Government's development of a national Sustainable Energy Policy for Australia, the AGA, the Australian Liquefied Petroleum Gas Association and the Australasian Natural Gas Vehicles Council released a report in January 1997 titled Gaseous Transport Fuels Policy Development (copy attached). The submission indicates that motor vehicles account for over 80 percent of carbon monoxide, 45 percent of hydrocarbons and 67 percent of nitrogen dioxide emissions. It also notes that Australia's transport sector is a major contributor towards the energy sector's greenhouse gas Wider adoption of gaseous transport fuels would have substantial benefits in reduced carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, sulphur dioxide, lead and particulate emissions. Gaseous transport fuels also lead to reduced carbon dioxide emissions. A report prepared for the AGA (to be published as an AGA Research Paper) indicates that: NGV tailpipe emissions of carbon monoxide are between 49 and 99 percent lower than new generation LPG systems can...

How to Write a Lab Report - Steps and Template

How to Write a Lab Report - Steps and Template Lab reports are an essential part of all laboratory courses and usually a significant part of your grade. If your instructor gives you an outline for how to write a lab report, use that. Some instructors require the lab report be included in a lab notebook, while others will request a separate report. Heres a format for a lab report you can use if you arent sure what to write or need an explanation of what to include in the different parts of the report. Lab Report A lab report is how you explain what you did in ​your  experiment, what you learned, and what the results meant. Lab Report Essentials Title Page Not all lab reports have title pages, but if your instructor wants one, it would be a single page that states:​ The title of the experiment.Your name and the names of any lab partners.Your instructors name.The date the lab was performed or the date the report was submitted. Title The title says what you did. It should be brief (aim for ten words or less) and describe the main point of the experiment or investigation. An example of a title would be: Effects of Ultraviolet Light on Borax Crystal Growth Rate. If you can, begin your title using a keyword rather than an article like The or A. Introduction / Purpose Usually, the introduction is one paragraph that explains the objectives or purpose of the lab. In one sentence, state the hypothesis. Sometimes an introduction may contain background information, briefly summarize how the experiment was performed, state the findings of the experiment, and list the conclusions of the investigation. Even if you dont write a whole introduction, you need to state the purpose of the experiment, or why you did it. This would be where you state your hypothesis. Materials List everything needed to complete your experiment. Methods Describe the steps you completed during your investigation. This is your procedure. Be sufficiently detailed that anyone could read this section and duplicate your experiment. Write it as if you were giving direction for someone else to do the lab. It may be helpful to provide a figure to diagram your experimental setup. Data Numerical data obtained from your procedure usually is presented as a table. Data encompasses what you recorded when you conducted the experiment. Its just the facts, not any interpretation of what they mean. Results Describe in words what the data means. Sometimes the Results section is combined with the Discussion (Results Discussion). Discussion or Analysis The Data section contains numbers. The Analysis section contains any calculations you made based on those numbers. This is where you interpret the data and determine whether or not a hypothesis was accepted. This is also where you would discuss any mistakes you might have made while conducting the investigation. You may wish to describe ways the study might have been improved. Conclusions Most of the time the conclusion is a single paragraph that sums up what happened in the experiment, whether your hypothesis was accepted or rejected, and what this means. Figures and Graphs Graphs and figures must both be labeled with a descriptive title. Label the axes on a graph, being sure to include units of measurement. The independent variable is on the X-axis. The dependent variable (the one you are measuring) is on the Y-axis. Be sure to refer to figures and graphs in the text of your report. The first figure is Figure 1, the second figure is Figure 2, etc. References If your research was based on someone elses work or if you cited facts that require documentation, then you should list these references.

Corporate Risk Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Corporate Risk Management - Essay Example The expenditures of the business in order to compensate the physical damages of workplace and manpower could serve as important inputs in the process of capital budgeting that has the objective to determine the actual net present value and internal rate of return of the business (Shapiro, 2008, p. 42). Firm’s exposure to physical risk The physical risk is the foremost risk that affects the organization and its people. The establishments, factories, plants and buildings in which the business is carried out as well as the employees of the business house are subject to physical risk. The physical risk to the business occurs as result of the uncertainty of the occurrence of unforeseen situations and accidents that badly affects the infrastructure of the business and its entire business set up. The physical risk may occur due to the unfortunate incidents of fire breakout in the company buildings. There may be accidents as a result of the explosions happening inside the workplace (M egginson and  Smart, 2008, p. 63). The companies spend substantial amounts in setting up the business infrastructure. A huge amount of expenditure is incurred by the business in constructing the office set up, the interior decoration and the wooden construction for making the buildings and its rooms suitable for official use. The other expenditures include glass fittings, work place arrangement of improved designs. The corporate look in the offices is due to the standardization of the infrastructure for business that is required to be established in the workplace. The occurrence of fire accidents and small explosions inside the office buildings are huge risks as it destroys the infrastructure for carrying out business operations and also injures or adversely affects the manpower resources of the business. The physical risk for the business may also be due to the spillage of hazardous materials in the workplace. The hazardous materials like the acids, gases, toxic wastes, and toxic fumes could adversely affect the employees of the company which would in turn affect the business operations. Physical Risk consideration in Capital budgeting The capital budgeting techniques are aimed at assessing the feasibility of the business investment in a particular project. The capital budgeting techniques assess the viability of business investments with the help of various approaches that determines the extent to which the business is profitable. The assessment of the business takes into account the risk of the business. The physical risks associated to the business takes into account the several factors of uncertainty that would reduce the net valuation of the business or the expected return from the business investments (Chandra, 2008, p. 96). The consideration of the physical risk is thereby necessary to determine the feasibility of the investments through Capital budgeting techniques. The various capital budgeting techniques used to judge the viability of the investme nt are the Net Present Value method, the Internal Rate of Return, etc. The Net Present value of the business is the actual present value of the business adjusted with the initial investments required for starting the project (Lumby, 1988, p. 84). The Net Present Valu

Uniform Commercial Code Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Uniform Commercial Code - Essay Example In the United States, the remedies of buyers and sellers of goods are governed by the Article 2 of Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) as it has been adopted with variations from state to state. Some contractual control over remedy is developed by the Article II of the Uniform Commercial Code, i.e., liquidated damages clauses; and contractual modification or limitation of remedy under UCC 2-719. Some remedies have been promoted for mistake and unconscionability as like, mistake in the formation of an agreement - the recession and restitution remedies; mistake in integration or expression - the reformation remedy; mistake in performance of an obligation - the restitution remedy; and unconscionability. If one of the parties to sale fails to perform the contract duties, the law makes several remedies available to the other party (Anderson; 1980:372). Remedies for the aggrieved seller are listed in the Uniform of Commercial Code 2-703 and 2-711 gives the basic buyer's remedies. The underlying doctrine for Code remedies is contained in section 1-106, which restates "the common-law theory of contract damages." Remedies under the Code are designed to protect the expectation interest of the party not in breach, and to provide "just compensation for the loss." The focus of the Code's remedial structure is on the anticipated future result if a party in breach has fully performed. Remedies under the Code are found in several sections, depending on who the breaching party is and at what point in the transaction breach occurs. The Article 2 concept that usually dictates which of these two remedial schemes will apply is "acceptance." If a buyer receives and continues to "accept" the goods, the exchange will normally be completed despite a breach. 7 Thus, except in rare circumstances, a buyer can retain accepted goods and a seller is entitled to the price for accepted goods.8 Seller's Remedies under UCC When contract for sale is breached by the buyer, the seller has a number of remedies available. Among the seller's remedies under the circumstances in 2-203 of the Uniform of Commercial Code, are the option to cancel, UCC 2-106(4), 2-703(f), or to withhold delivery, UCC 2-703(a).9 UCC 2-703 certify that where the buyer wrongfully rejects or revokes acceptance of goods or fails to make a payment due on or before delivery or repudiates with respect to a part or the whole, then with respect to any goods directly affected and, if the breach is of the whole contract (UCC 2-612), then also with respect to the whole undelivered balance, the aggrieved seller may following remedies: (a) withhold delivery of such goods; (b) stop delivery by any bailee as hereafter provided (UCC 2-705); (c) proceed under the next section respecting goods still unidentified to the contract; (d) resell and recover damages as hereafter provided (UCC 2-706); (e) recover damages for non-acceptance (UCC 2-708) or in a proper case the price (UCC 2-709); (f) cancel. Before